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-
- Some basic information on geometrical crystallography
-
-
-
- This is a short overview over some crystallographic definitions and facts
- that might be helpful when using XTAL4POV. It is by no means a complete
- introduction to geometrical crystallography, but gives only a few hints.
- If you are interested in getting deeper into this, I highly recommend
- reading a good textbook on elementary crystallography.
-
- Well, here we go. First, a crystal is a solid with the unique property of
- being built up of a lattice of so-called unit cells, which is strictly
- periodic in all three dimensions of space. This 3-dimensional periodicity
- imposes severe restrictions on the possible symmetries and shapes. I want to
- emphasize here, that the description of crystal symmetry is not a matter of
- empiric observations, though most of it was found out that way, but is one
- of the subjects of Group Theory, which is *REALLY* hardcore mathematics. Only
- very few crystallographers, if any, are able to deal with the complete Group
- Theory, most of us are happy, if we understand the part we have to use. So
- you can be sure that the numbers you will read in the following are correct,
- and if I tell you there are exactly 32 crystal classes or point groups, as the
- mathematicians call them, you will never have the chance to find a 33rd,
- because this number is proven theoretically.
-
- When we want to decribe something in 3D-space, we use a coordinate system,
- and for convenience we use a so-called cartesian coordinate system, where
- three axes are perpendicular to each other and have the same scale. Un-
- fortunately, crystal symmetry forces us to use other coordinates, too, and
- in fact, there are 7 different coordinate systems, the Crystal Systems, to
- be used in crystallography. These are:
-
- 1. The Cubic (or Isometric) System
- Three orthogonal axes with identical scales, just as the well-known
- cartesian system.
-
- 2. The Hexagonal System
- Two axes with the same scale and with an angle of 120° between them, and
- perpendicular to both of them a third one, the main axis, which has a
- different scale. This axis is conventionally called c-axis.
-
- 3. The Trigonal System
- Here we have a little problem. We can describe a trigonal crystal with
- a hexagonal coordinate system as above, so an extra system would not be
- necessary, but we can as well use the so-called rhombohedral coordinate
- system with three axes of identical scale and identical angles between
- them, which are not orthogonal to each other. This is quite complicated,
- and therefore I don't use this system here, but describe trigonal crys-
- tals in terms of the hexagonal system.
-
- 4. The Tetragonal System
- Three orthogonal axes, but one axis, the main axis or c-axis, has a
- different scale than the two others.
-
- 5. The Orthorhombic System
- Three orthogonal axes with a different scale for each.
-
- 6. The Monoclinic System
- Three axes with different scales, and one of the angles is >= 90°.
- Usually this is the angle between the a-axis and the c-axis, so this
- angle is called beta, and the b-axis is orthogonal to the others and
- is therefore called unique.
-
- 7. The Triclinic (or Anorthic) System
- Three axes with different scales and non-orthogonal angles between them.
-
- OK, now we know how to describe the overall symmetry of a crystal and can go
- into the details. The symmetry of a crystal is described by a set of symmetry
- elements, namely rotation axes, roto-inversion axes and/or mirror planes in
- certain directions. These directions are the only directions where symmetry
- elements can occur, and they are different for the different crystal systems.
- So, what symmetry elements do we have?
-
- Rotation Axes:
-
- 1. The Onefold Axis - Symbol 1
- Well, this is not really a useful symmetry element, for it means that if
- we turn a crystal around an angle of 360°, we will not be able to discern
- this new position from the original one. Of course not, and therefore
- this symmetry element is usually never mentioned, except in the triclinic
- system, where it can be the only symmetry element present.
-
- 2. The Twofold Axis - Symbol 2
- If we turn a crystal 180° around this axis, we cannot see any difference
- to the original position, and two such rotations brings us back to the
- origin, hence the name.
-
- 3. The Threefold Axis - Symbol 3
- Here we can rotate 3 times with an angle of 120° without seeing any
- difference between the positions.
-
- 4. The Fourfold Axis - Symbol 4
- 4 rotations with an angle of 90°.
-
- 5. The Sixfold Axis - Symbol 6
- Finally we have an axis, around which we can rotate 6 times with steps of
- 60°.
-
- A word to the usage of these symbols: We always choose the highest possible
- symmetry, so for example, a sixfold axis contains of course twofold and
- threefold axes, but we don't mention them, because we know they must be there
- when we see a sixfold axis.
-
- Roto-Inversion Axes:
-
- 1. The Center of Symmetry or Center of Inversion - Symbol -1
- Well, actually the symbol is 1-bar, a 1 with a bar over it, but how do
- this in plain ASCII? The same applies to the other symbols. But what
- does this symbol mean? Not so easy to explain without a picture. Imagine
- a cartesian coordinate system with a center of inversion in the origin.
- Then a point with the coordinates (x,y,z) will be projected onto another
- point with the coordinates (-x,-y,-z). You see what I mean? Well, at
- least try it. Usually, a -1 is never mentioned in the crystal class sym-
- bol, it is present or absent depending on the other symmetry elements.
- The only exception is again the triclinic system, where it can be the
- only symmetry element.
-
- 2. The Mirror Plane - Symbol m
- I know you expected the symbol -2 in this place, didn't you? You've got
- it, for -2 and m are identical, and we prefer m for some good reasons,
- the explanation of which will go far beyond the scope of this text. A
- mirror plane just acts as a mirror. No, it's not the same as a twofold
- axis: Put your hands on the table, side by side, and put a vertical
- mirror between them. Then you will realize, that the mirror image of one
- hand has the same orientation as the other hand. There is no rotation
- that can achieve this.
-
- 3. The Threefold Inversion Axis - Symbol -3
- How shall I describe it without a picture? Well, rotate the crystal
- around 120° and then invert it through its center! Easy enough, don't
- you think so? It's indeed really hard to explain, and perhaps it will
- help when I tell you that for example an octahedron has such -3 -axes
- right through the centres of its triangular faces. Take some cardboard
- and build an octahedron, I know this will help.
-
- 4. The Fourfold Inversion Axis - Symbol -4
- Same as above, but rotation angle 90°. Example: a tetrahedron has -4
- axes right through the middle of opposite edges. Build one and try!
-
- 5. The Sixfold Inversion Axis - Symbol -6
- Rotation of 60° and inversion. No example readily available. Use your
- brain and try to imagine how it works.
-
- Hard stuff? Not really, the problem is that I can't show pictures and give
- you crystal models. But anyway, if you really have problems with this, and I
- know there are a lot of people who have, don't mind, because the program
- handles this for you. Just stick to the instructions and play around, and
- you'll be able to render perfect crystals.
-
- So far we have the crystal systems and the various symmetry elements, and now
- we have to put them together to get the actual crystal classes. Remember: The
- basis of this is mathematics, and therefore you can be sure, that the above-
- mentioned 7 systems and 10 symmetry elements are definitely all we have. Due
- to the restrictions caused by threedimensional periodicity, we can't either
- have an eighth crystal system or an eleventh symmetry element, e.g. a five-
- fold axis. It's strictly prohibited!!!
-
- So now we know what tools we have. But how to use them? Well, as I
- mentioned above, there exists a specific set of possible symmetry-bearing
- directions for each crystal system, which will be described in the following.
- But first keep in mind that all symmetry elements intersect in exactly one
- point in the center of the crystal, that's why the mathematicians speak of
- point groups.
-
- 1. Triclinic system
- Here we have no specific directions, the center of the crystal either is a
- center of symmetry, or it is not.
-
- 2. Monoclinic system
- Here we have one symmetry-bearing direction, and this is the abovementioned
- unique axis, usually called the b-axis or direction [010]. In this direction
- we can have a 2 axis, or a m plane perpendicular to it, or both together.
- Please note that we describe an axis by it's direction, and a mirror plane by
- the direction of it's normal. Furthermore, if there is a mirror plane perpen-
- dicular to an axis, we use a / to indicate this in the symbol, e.g. a mirror
- plane perpendicular to a 2-fold axis would give the symbol 2/m (pronounced
- two over m).
-
- 3. Orthorhombic system
- Here we have three possible directions of symmetry identical with the axes of
- the system. In all three directions we can have 2-fold axes and/or mirror
- planes, so there is always a symbol consisting of three parts, indicating
- the symmetry elements in x, y and z, respectively.
-
- 4. Trigonal, tetragonal and hexagonal system
- Now things get a little more complicated. As we know, in the tetragonal
- system, for example, the symmetry in x and y must be the same, so if we know
- the symmetry in one of them, we aren't interested in the symmetry of the
- other, because we know it already. So we look at a direction just in the
- middle between the two axes. The same applies to the other two systems.
- For the all three systems, the first part of the symbol describes the symmetry
- in the z-direction, or [001], which can be in the tetragonal system 4, -4
- and, if present, m, in the hexagonal system it can be 6, -6 and m, and finally
- in the trigonal system 3, -3, and m. The second part of the point group
- symbol describes the symmetry in direction [100], the a-axis, which can be
- 2 and/or m. Finally, in the third part of the symbol, we find the symmetry
- of [110] for the tetragonal system, or [120] for the hexagonal system. The
- trigonal system doesn't have a third part. The third part of the symbol can
- be 2 and/or m.
-
- 5. Cubic system
- Well, here things seem to go completely mad. The first direction is [100],
- the direction of the axes (yes, of all three axes, because they have the same
- symmetry). Here we can have 4, -4, 2, and m. The second direction is [111],
- which is the direction of the space diagonal between two opposite corners,
- where we can find 3 or -3, but never a mirror plane. The third direction,
- finally, goes parallel to the diagonals of the faces (symbol [110]), and can
- have 2, m, or nothing at all.
-
- Now let's have a look at the symbols we can construct with these informa-
- tions. In crystallography, we use two kinds of symbols, namely the full
- symbols containing the complete information, and the short symbols,
- containing only the necessary parts of information. One very important
- information is whether a crystal has a center of symmetry or not, so it is
- included here.
-
-
- Crystal Class Symbols (Hermann-Mauguin-Symbols)
-
- System Full Short Center
-
- Triclinic 1 1 no
- -1 -1 yes
-
- Monoclinic 2 2 no
- m m no
- 2/m 2/m yes
-
- Orthorhombic 222 222 no
- mm2 mm2 no
- 2/m 2/m 2/m mmm yes
-
- Tetragonal -4 -4 no
- 4 4 no
- 422 422 no
- -42m -42m no
- 4/m 4/m yes
- 4mm 4mm no
- 4/m 2/m 2/m 4/mmm yes
-
- Trigonal 3 3 no
- 32 32 no
- -3 -3 yes
- 3m 3m no
- -3 2/m -3m yes
-
- Hexagonal -6 -6 no
- -6m2 -6m2 no
- 6 6 no
- 622 622 no
- 6/m 6/m yes
- 6mm 6mm no
- 6/m 2/m 2/m 6/mmm yes
-
- Cubic 23 23 no
- 432 432 no
- 2/m -3 m-3 yes
- -43m -43m no
- 4/m -3 2/m m-3m yes
-
-
-
-
- Finally, here's a list of all possible crystal shapes. There are two
- different kinds of shapes, namely closed and open ones. A closed shape is
- one that is on all sides surrounded by faces, and thus is finite, while an
- open shape is infinite in at least one direction, and thus cannot occur as
- the only form of a crystal, but is always combined with other forms to make
- a closed convex polyhedron. The occurence of h,k,l in the Miller-indices
- means, they can be replaced by any number as long as the resulting symbol
- is different from other symbols in the list.
-
- One word about those funny curly braces around {hkl}: In crystallography, we
- have to deal with single directions, denoted by square brackets [uvw], with
- complete sets of symmetry equivalent directions, denoted by angle brackets
- <uvw>, with single planes, enclosed in parentheses (hkl), and with complete
- sets of symmetry equivalent planes, which are marked by curly braces {hkl}.
-
-
-
- Triclinic System
-
- Possible Shapes:
-
- 1 Pinacoids of different orientations (open)
- 2 Pedions of different orientations (open)
-
-
- Occurrence of shapes in crystal classes:
-
- Crystal Class Shape No.
-
- {001} {100} {010} {hk0} {h0l} {0kl} {hkl}
-
- -1 Pinacoid of appropriate orientation
- 1 Pedion of appropriate orientation
- _______________________________________________________________
-
-
- Monoclinic System
-
- Possible Shapes:
-
- No. Name Indices Rem.
-
- 1 mcl. Pinacoid { 0 0 1 } open
- 2 mcl. Pinacoid { 1 0 0 } open
- 3 mcl. Pinacoid { 0 1 0 } open
- 4 mcl. Prism { h k 0 } open
- 5 mcl. Pinacoid { h 0 l } open
- 6 mcl. Prism { 0 k l } open
- 7 mcl. Hemipyramid { h k l } open
-
- 8 mcl. Pedion { 0 0 1 } open
- 9 mcl. Pedion { 1 0 0 } open
- 10 mcl. Doma { h k 0 } open
- 11 mcl. Pedion { h 0 l } open
- 12 mcl. Doma { 0 k l } open
- 13 mcl. Pyramid-Doma { h k l } open
- 14 mcl. Pedion { 0 1 0 } open
- 15 mcl. Sphenoid { h k 0 } open
- 16 mcl. Sphenoid { 0 k l } open
- 17 mcl. Pyramid-Sphenoid { h k l } open
-
-
- Occurrence of shapes in crystal classes:
-
- Crystal Class Shape No.
-
- {001} {100} {010} {hk0} {h0l} {0kl} {hkl}
-
- 2/m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
- m 8 9 3 10 11 12 13
- 2 1 2 14 15 5 16 17
-
- ---------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
- Orthorhombic System
-
- Possible Shapes:
-
- No. Name Indices Rem.
-
- 1 o'rhomb. Pinacoid { 0 0 1 } open
- 2 o'rhomb. Pinacoid { 1 0 0 } open
- 3 o'rhomb. Pinacoid { 0 1 0 } open
- 4 o'rhomb. Prism { h k 0 } open
- 5 o'rhomb. Prism { h 0 l } open
- 6 o'rhomb. Prism { 0 k l } open
- 7 o'rhomb. Bipyramid { h k l } closed
-
- 8 o'rhomb. Pedion { 0 0 1 } open
- 9 o'rhomb. Doma { h 0 l } open
- 10 o'rhomb. Doma { 0 k l } open
- 11 o'rhomb. Pyramid { h k l } open
- 12 o'rhomb. Bisphenoid { h k l } closed
-
-
- Occurrence of shapes in crystal classes:
-
- Crystal Class Shape No.
-
- {001} {100} {010} {hk0} {h0l} {0kl} {hkl}
-
- 2/m 2/m 2/m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
- m m 2 8 2 3 4 9 10 11
- 2 2 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 12
-
- ---------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
- Tetragonal System
-
-
- Possible Shapes:
-
- No. Name Indices Rem.
-
- 1 tetr. Base-Pinacoid { 0 0 1 } open
- 2 tetr. Prism II { 1 0 0 } open
- 3 tetr. Prism I { 1 1 0 } open
- 4 ditetr. Prism { h k 0 } open
- 5 tetr. Bipyramid II { h 0 l } closed
- 6 tetr. Bipyramid I { h h l } closed
- 7 ditetr. Bipyramid { h k l } closed
-
- 8 tetr. Pedion { 0 0 1 } open
- 9 tetr. Pyramid II { h 0 l } open
- 10 tetr. Pyramid I { h h l } open
- 11 ditetr. Pyramid { h k l } open
- 12 tetr. Prism III { h k 0 } open
- 13 tetr. Bipyramid III { h k l } closed
- 14 tetr. Bisphenoid I { h h l } closed
- 15 tetr. Scalenohedron { h k l } closed
- 16 tetr. Trapezohedron { h k l } closed
- 17 tetr. Pyramid III { h k l } open
- 18 tetr. Bisphenoid II { h 0 l } closed
- 19 tetr. Bisphenoid III { h k l } closed
-
-
- Occurrence of shapes in crystal classes:
-
- Crystal Class Shape No.
-
- {001} {100} {110} {hk0} {h0l} {hhl} {hkl}
-
- 4/m 2/m 2/m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
- 4 m m 8 2 3 4 9 10 11
- 4/m 1 2 3 12 5 6 13
- -4 2 m 1 2 3 4 5 14 15
- 4 2 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 16
- 4 8 2 3 12 9 10 17
- -4 1 2 3 12 18 14 19
-
- ---------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
- Trigonal System
-
- Possible Shapes:
-
- No. Name Indices Rem.
-
- 1 hex. Base-Pinacoid { 0 0 1 } open
- 2 hex. Prism I { 1 0 0 } open
- 3 hex. Prism II { 1 1 0 } open
- 4 dihex. Prism { h k 0 } open
- 5 trig. Rhombohedron I { h 0 l } closed
- 6 hex. Bipyramid II { h h l } closed
- 7 trig. Scalenohedron { h k l } closed
-
- 8 hex. Base-Pedion { 0 0 1 } open
- 9 trig. Prism I { 1 0 0 } open
- 10 ditrig. Prism I { h k 0 } open
- 11 trig. Pyramid I { h 0 l } open
- 12 hex. Pyramid II { h h l } open
- 13 ditrig. Pyramid { h k l } open
- 14 hex. Prism III { h k 0 } open
- 15 trig. Rhombohedron II { h h l } closed
- 16 trig. Rhombohedron III { h k l } closed
- 17 trig. Prism II { 1 1 0 } open
- 18 ditrig. Prism II { h k 0 } open
- 19 trig. Bipyramid II { h h l } closed
- 20 trig. Trapezohedron { h k l } closed
- 21 trig. Prism III { h k 0 } open
- 22 trig. Pyramid II { h h l } open
- 23 trig. Pyramid III { h k l } open
-
-
- Occurrence of shapes in crystal classes:
-
- Crystal Class Shape No.
-
- {001} {100} {110} {hk0} {h0l} {hhl} {hkl}
-
- -3 2/m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
- 3 m 8 9 3 10 11 12 13
- -3 1 2 3 14 5 15 16
- 3 2 1 2 17 18 5 19 20
- 3 8 9 17 21 11 22 23
-
- ---------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
- Hexagonal System
-
- Possible shapes:
-
- No. Name Indices Rem.
-
- 1 hex. Base-Pinacoid { 0 0 1 } open
- 2 hex. Prism I { 1 0 0 } open
- 3 hex. Prism II { 1 1 0 } open
- 4 dihex. Prism { h k 0 } open
- 5 hex. Bipyramid I { h 0 l } closed
- 6 hex. Bipyramid II { h h l } closed
- 7 dihex. Bipyramid { h k l } closed
-
- 8 hex. Base-Pedion { 0 0 1 } open
- 9 hex. Pyramid I { h 0 l } open
- 10 hex. Pyramid II { h h l } open
- 11 dihex. Pyramid { h k l } open
- 12 hex. Prism III { h k 0 } open
- 13 hex. Bipyramid III { h k l } closed
- 14 hex. Trapezohedron { h k l } closed
- 15 hex. Pyramid III { h k l } open
- 16 trig. Prism I { 1 0 0 } open
- 17 ditrig. Prism { h k 0 } open
- 18 trig. Bipyramid I { h 0 l } closed
- 19 ditrig. Bipyramid { h k l } closed
- 20 trig. Prism II { 1 1 0 } open
- 21 trig. Prism III { h k 0 } open
- 22 trig. Bipyramid II { h h l } closed
- 23 trig. Bipyramid III { h k l } closed
-
-
- Occurrence of shapes in crystal classes:
-
- Crystal Class Shape No.
-
- {001} {100} {110} {hk0} {h0l} {hhl} {hkl}
-
- 6/m 2/m 2/m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
- 6 m m 8 2 3 4 9 10 11
- 6/m 1 2 3 12 5 6 13
- 6 2 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 14
- 6 8 2 3 12 9 10 15
- -6 m 2 1 16 3 17 18 6 19
- -6 1 16 20 21 18 22 23
-
- ---------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
- Cubic System
-
- Possible shapes (all shapes are closed):
-
- No. Name Indices
- 1 Cube { 1 0 0 }
- 2 Rhomb-Dodecahedron { 1 1 0 }
- 3 Tetrakis-Hexahedron { h k 0 }
- 4 Octahedron { 1 1 1 }
- 5 Triakis-Octahedron { h h l }
- 6 Icosi-Tetrahedron { h l l }
- 7 Hexakis-Octahedron { h k l }
-
- 8 Tetrahedron { 1 1 1 }
- 9 Deltoid-Dodecahedron { h h l }
- 10 Triakis-Tetrahedron { h l l }
- 11 Hexakis-Tetrahedron { h k l }
- 12 Pentagon-Dodecahedron { h k 0 }
- 13 Dis-Dodecahedron { h k l }
- 14 Pentagon-Icositetrahedron { h k l }
- 15 Tetrahedral Pentagon-Dodecahedron { h k l }
-
-
- Occurrence of shapes in crystal classes:
-
- Crystal Class Shape No.
-
- {100} {110} {hk0} {111} {hhl} {hll} {hkl}
-
- 4/m -3 2/m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
- -4 3 m 1 2 3 8 9 10 11
- 2/m -3 1 2 12 4 5 6 13
- 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 14
- 2 3 1 2 12 8 9 10 15
-
- ---------------------------------------------------------------
-
- I hope, this quite abbreviated introduction is useful (and free of
- substantial errors). I tried to put in everything one needs to under-
- stand what XTAL4POV does, and I tried to write it down in a way even a
- complete novice to crystallography hopefully can understand. I know this
- is not a masterpiece of literature, but I wrote this down from scratch today
- to get the program released as soon as possible.
-
-